Metallurgy
Metals occur natively or as compounds; only minerals permitting convenient and economic extraction are ores.
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Metallurgy: Metal Occurrence, Minerals and Ores
Metals occur natively or as compounds; only minerals permitting convenient and economic extraction are ores.
Open article →Ore Concentration: Gravity, Flotation, Leaching and Magnetism
Gangue removal raises metal concentration through methods chosen for density, wetting, solubility or magnetic differences.
Open article →Roasting and Calcination: Converting Ores to Oxides
Roasting uses excess oxygen for sulphides, while calcination uses absent or limited air for carbonates and hydrated ores.
Open article →Smelting, Flux, Slag and Copper Matte
A flux reacts with gangue to form fusible slag while reduction proceeds; copper smelting separates matte and yields blister copper.
Open article →Metal-Oxide Reduction: Carbon, Hydrogen, Metals and Self-Reduction
Carbon, hydrogen or reactive metals reduce suitable oxides; some roasted sulphides furnish metal without an added reducing agent.
Open article →Ellingham Diagram: Reduction Feasibility and Limits
Free-energy lines compare oxide stability and identify feasible reducing agents and temperatures, subject to thermodynamic limits.
Open article →Hall-Héroult Electrochemical Extraction of Aluminium
Fused alumina in cryolite is electrolysed above 1270 K; aluminium forms at the carbon-lined cathode while carbon anodes are consumed.
Open article →Metal Refining: Distillation, Electrolysis, Zone and Vapour Methods
Refining removes crude-metal impurities through property-specific thermal, electrolytic, crystallisation and volatile-compound methods.
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